Soft Feel

Underneath its candy-coated Aqua interface, Mac OS X is based on Unix, an operating system that dates back to 1969. Unix and its archetypal user interface, the command line, look alien to many Mac users. Instead of using graphic methods such as clicking and dragging, you interact with the command line via terse, cryptic text. The commands and responses may be bewildering at first, but even the most visually oriented user should consider learning this lingo–some tasks can be accomplished much more quickly in the command line, and some are possible only in the command line.

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In OS X, you reach the command line through an application called Terminal. This article, a collection of tips, will introduce you to Terminal and some essential Unix commands. Future articles will build on this knowledge, but if you find you’re immediately thirsting for more, go to our Mac OS X resource page.

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• The current Mac operating system is macOS, originally named 'Mac OS X' until 2012 and then 'OS X' until 2016. Developed between 1997 and 2001 after Apple's purchase of NeXT, Mac OS X brought an entirely new architecture based on NeXTSTEP, a Unix system, that eliminated many of the technical challenges that the classic Mac OS faced.

Just keep in mind that the command line is serious business. Even experienced users occasionally wipe out entire directories (and their contents) by accident. It’s easy to overwrite existing files. And there is no undo command here. Always double-check what you’re about to do so you avoid mishaps.

Contributing Editor STEPHAN SOMOGYI thinks the addition of the command line to the Mac OS tool chest is a feature, not a bug. As with any power tool, though, appropriate protective gear should be worn at all times.

1: Find Your Way Before you can manipulate files and folders, you need to know how to get to them. Instead of double-clicking on folders to look inside, you have to tell the command line which folders to go to and which files to enumerate.

When you launch Terminal, you’re greeted with a line of text that ends in a % (percent) character (A). This line of text, the prompt , indicates that the software that interprets your commands (the shell ) is ready.

Every time you launch Terminal, you start from your OS X Home directory. To see which files are in the Home directory, enter ls –short for “list directory contents”–after the prompt, and press return.

In the traditional Mac OS, when you want to copy or duplicate a file, you first open its folder in the Finder. To do the same using Terminal, enter cd –short for “change directory”–in the command line. If you have a subfolder named “clam” in your home folder, entering cd clam will change the current working directory to that subfolder. To then list its contents, type ls.

If you want to move back up through the folder hierarchy, you can use cd .. –two periods mean “the directory above” when used as a directory name. A single period means “the current directory.”

2: Manipulate Your Files Now that you can examine your files via the command line, you’ll want to do things with them.

You use one command both to move files to other folders and to rename them: mv, short for “move.” If you have a file named “pismo” that you want to change to “brighton,” type mv pismo brighton and press the return key. But first make sure you don’t already have a file by that name in the same location–if you do, it will be overwritten.

When you want to copy a file (rather than move or rename it), use the cp command, which, like the mv command, wants to know what you’re copying and where you’re copying it to.

TIP: Traditional Unix is case sensitive: if a file or folder is called “Ocean,” you must enter the capital O every time. Although the HFS+ file system used by Mac OS X isn’t as strict, using consistent capitalization is a good habit to get into, especially because OS X can mount volumes (either over the network or locally) whose file systems are case sensitive (for example, UFS).

3: Control Text Flow Sometimes commands spew more lines of text at you than can fit on one screen. Fortunately, there are several ways to slow the onslaught and move through it.

The less command lets you move forward through reams of text one page at a time and also lets you move backward. This command is often handier than using Terminal’s scroll bar.

When you combine commands by using a pipe scheme , you allow Unix to use one command’s output as a second command’s input. A pipe is represented by the (vertical bar) character.

Say you want to list the contents of a directory that contains hundreds of files and folders. Enter only ls, and many of those files and folders will scroll past too quickly to read. The solution is to use a pipe, along with less, creating a code string that looks like this: ls less (A).

This command tells the system to feed the result of ls to less, which then proceeds to display it one page at a time (B).

4: Wild Cards Wild-card characters are among the most powerful–and most perilous–features of the command line because they allow you to affect many files with one command. In this example, I combined some now-familiar commands with wild cards. When you explore wild cards, try not to be too all-encompassing: use them cautiously, particularly when deleting files, so you don’t delete or damage files you care about.

When constructing commands, you frequently have to specify which file or files you want to affect. Instead of typing the name of each file, you can use a wild card to make the computer do the work. The * (asterisk) wild card basically translates to “anything.” Another useful wild card, ?, translates to “any single character.”

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Suppose you have a folder called “bigtext” in your home directory; it’s filled with text files, and you want to examine the contents of those files.

From your home directory, enter cd bigtext.

To view the contents of the files, enter less *.txt (A). Using a wild card this way displays every file in the current directory that has a .txt ending.

After you enter less *.txt, press return. Though results will vary based on your files, you should see output similar to the example (B).

But say we want to see only those text files with a single-character name. Simple enough: enter less ?.txt C, which displays any file with a name that ends in .txt and has only a single character before the period.

After you press return, you should see something like the output in the example (D).

You can also combine wild cards: less *.t?t shows you the insides of all files ending in .txt , .tot , and .trt , for example, but not those ending in .tt .

Many Mac files have spaces in their names, so it’s useful to know how to handle this situation on the command line as well. If you don’t show the shell that the space is part of the file’s name, it will treat the space as a file-name separator. When a space is part of a file name, put the whole thing inside single quotation marks. less ‘Pearls ??.txt’ will display the contents of files named “Pearls 00.txt,” “Pearls 99.txt,” and any similarly named files in between.

So, you’ve decided to download an older version of Mac OS X. There are many reasons that could point you to this radical decision. To begin with, some of your apps may not be working properly (or simply crash) on newer operating systems. Also, you may have noticed your Mac’s performance went down right after the last update. Finally, if you want to run a parallel copy of Mac OS X on a virtual machine, you too will need a working installation file of an older Mac OS X. Further down we’ll explain where to get one and what problems you may face down the road.

A list of all Mac OS X versions

We’ll be repeatedly referring to these Apple OS versions below, so it’s good to know the basic macOS timeline.

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STEP 1. Prepare your Mac for installation

Given your Mac isn’t new and is filled with data, you will probably need enough free space on your Mac. This includes not just space for the OS itself but also space for other applications and your user data. One more argument is that the free space on your disk translates into virtual memory so your apps have “fuel” to operate on. The chart below tells you how much free space is needed.

Note, that it is recommended that you install OS on a clean drive. Next, you will need enough disk space available, for example, to create Recovery Partition. Here are some ideas to free up space on your drive:

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• Uninstall large unused apps
• Empty Trash Bin and Downloads
• Locate the biggest files on your computer:

Go to Finder > All My Files > Arrange by size
Then you can move your space hoggers onto an external drive or a cloud storage.
If you aren’t comfortable with cleaning the Mac manually, there are some nice automatic “room cleaners”. Our favorite is CleanMyMac as it’s most simple to use of all. It deletes system junk, old broken apps, and the rest of hidden junk on your drive.

Download CleanMyMac for OS 10.4 - 10.8 (free version)

Download CleanMyMac for OS 10.9 (free version)

Download CleanMyMac for OS 10.10 - 10.14 (free version)

STEP 2. Get a copy of Mac OS X download

Normally, it is assumed that updating OS is a one-way road. That’s why going back to a past Apple OS version is problematic. The main challenge is to download the OS installation file itself, because your Mac may already be running a newer version. If you succeed in downloading the OS installation, your next step is to create a bootable USB or DVD and then reinstall the OS on your computer.

How to download older Mac OS X versions via the App Store

If you once had purchased an old version of Mac OS X from the App Store, open it and go to the Purchased tab. There you’ll find all the installers you can download. However, it doesn’t always work that way. The purchased section lists only those operating systems that you had downloaded in the past. But here is the path to check it:

1. Click the App Store icon.
2. Click Purchases in the top menu.
3. Scroll down to find the preferred OS X version.
4. Click Download.

This method allows you to download Mavericks and Yosemite by logging with your Apple ID — only if you previously downloaded them from the Mac App Store.

Without App Store: Download Mac OS version as Apple Developer

If you are signed with an Apple Developer account, you can get access to products that are no longer listed on the App Store. If you desperately need a lower OS X version build, consider creating a new Developer account among other options. The membership cost is $99/year and provides a bunch of perks unavailable to ordinary users.

Nevertheless, keep in mind that if you visit developer.apple.com/downloads, you can only find 10.3-10.6 OS X operating systems there. Newer versions are not available because starting Mac OS X Snow Leopard 10.7, the App Store has become the only source of updating Apple OS versions.

Purchase an older version of Mac operating system

You can purchase a boxed or email version of past Mac OS X directly from Apple. Both will cost you around $20. For the reason of being rather antiquated, Snow Leopard and earlier Apple versions can only be installed from DVD.

Buy a boxed edition of Snow Leopard 10.6
Get an email copy of Lion 10.7
Get an email copy of Mountain Lion 10.8

The email edition comes with a special download code you can use for the Mac App Store. Note, that to install the Lion or Mountain Lion, your Mac needs to be running Snow Leopard so you can install the newer OS on top of it.

How to get macOS El Capitan download

If you are wondering if you can run El Capitan on an older Mac, rejoice as it’s possible too. But before your Mac can run El Capitan it has to be updated to OS X 10.6.8. So, here are main steps you should take:

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1. Install Snow Leopard from install DVD.
2. Update to 10.6.8 using Software Update.
3. Download El Capitan here.

“I can’t download an old version of Mac OS X”

If you have a newer Mac, there is no physical option to install Mac OS versions older than your current Mac model. For instance, if your MacBook was released in 2014, don’t expect it to run any OS released prior of that time, because older Apple OS versions simply do not include hardware drivers for your Mac.

But as it often happens, workarounds are possible. There is still a chance to download the installation file if you have an access to a Mac (or virtual machine) running that operating system. For example, to get an installer for Lion, you may ask a friend who has Lion-operated Mac or, once again, set up a virtual machine running Lion. Then you will need to prepare an external drive to download the installation file using OS X Utilities.

After you’ve completed the download, the installer should launch automatically, but you can click Cancel and copy the file you need. Below is the detailed instruction how to do it.

STEP 3. Install older OS X onto an external drive

The following method allows you to download Mac OS X Lion, Mountain Lion, and Mavericks.

1. Start your Mac holding down Command + R.
2. Prepare a clean external drive (at least 10 GB of storage).
3. Within OS X Utilities, choose Reinstall OS X.
4. Select external drive as a source.
5. Enter your Apple ID.

Now the OS should start downloading automatically onto the external drive. After the download is complete, your Mac will prompt you to do a restart, but at this point, you should completely shut it down. Now that the installation file is “captured” onto your external drive, you can reinstall the OS, this time running the file on your Mac.

1. Boot your Mac from your standard drive.
2. Connect the external drive.
3. Go to external drive > OS X Install Data.

Locate InstallESD.dmg disk image file — this is the file you need to reinstall Lion OS X. The same steps are valid for Mountain Lion and Mavericks.

How to downgrade a Mac running later macOS versions

If your Mac runs macOS Sierra 10.12 or macOS High Sierra 10.13, it is possible to revert it to the previous system if you are not satisfied with the experience. You can do it either with Time Machine or by creating a bootable USB or external drive.
Instruction to downgrade from macOS Sierra

Instruction to downgrade from macOS High Sierra

Instruction to downgrade from macOS Mojave

Instruction to downgrade from macOS Catalina

Before you do it, the best advice is to back your Mac up so your most important files stay intact. In addition to that, it makes sense to clean up your Mac from old system junk files and application leftovers. The easiest way to do it is to run CleanMyMac X on your machine (download it for free here).

Visit your local Apple Store to download older OS X version

If none of the options to get older OS X worked, pay a visit to nearest local Apple Store. They should have image installations going back to OS Leopard and earlier. You can also ask their assistance to create a bootable USB drive with the installation file. So here you are. We hope this article has helped you to download an old version of Mac OS X. Below are a few more links you may find interesting.